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Square Kilometre Array

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</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Square Kilometre Array</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="infobox-caption">Artist's impression</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alternative names</th><td class="infobox-data">SKA </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location(s)</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="Meerkat_National_Park" title="Meerkat National Park">Meerkat National Park</a>, South Africa and <a href="Murchison_Radio-astronomy_Observatory" title="Murchison Radio-astronomy Observatory">Murchison Radio-astronomy Observatory</a>, Australia</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Coordinates</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">

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</style><a class="external text" href="geo:-30.72111111111111,21.41111111111111">30°43′16″S 21°24′40″E / 30.72111°S 21.41111°E / -30.72111; 21.41111</a> and <a class="external text" href="geo:-26.696944444444444,116.63111111111111">26°41′49″S 116°37′52″E / 26.69694°S 116.63111°E / -26.69694; 116.63111</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Built</th><td class="infobox-data">2018– </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="First_light_(astronomy)" title="First light (astronomy)">First light</a></th><td class="infobox-data">2027 (projected)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Collecting area</th><td class="infobox-data">1 km2 (11,000,000 sq ft) </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Website</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.skao.int">www.skao.int</a> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">  <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Square_Kilometre_Array" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Square Kilometre Array">Related media on Commons</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"></td></tr></tbody></table>

The Square Kilometre Array (SKA) is an <a href="Intergovernmental_organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Intergovernmental organisation">intergovernmental</a> international <a href="Radio_telescope" title="Radio telescope">radio telescope</a> project being built in Australia (low-frequency) and South Africa (mid-frequency). The combining infrastructure, the Square Kilometre Array Observatory (SKAO), and headquarters, are located at the <a href="Jodrell_Bank_Observatory" title="Jodrell Bank Observatory">Jodrell Bank Observatory</a> in the United Kingdom. The SKA cores are being built in the <a href="Southern_hemisphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern hemisphere">southern hemisphere</a>, where the view of the <a href="Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a> galaxy is the best and <a href="Radio_interference" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio interference">radio interference</a> is at its least.

Conceived in the 1990s, and further developed and designed by the late-2010s, when completed sometime in the 2020s it will have a total collecting area of approximately one <a href="Square_kilometre" title="Square kilometre">square kilometre</a>. It will operate over a wide range of frequencies and its size will make it 50 times more sensitive than any other radio instrument. If built as planned, it should be able to <a href="Astronomical_survey" title="Astronomical survey">survey the sky</a> more than ten thousand times faster than before. With receiving stations extending out to a distance of at least 3,000 km (1,900 mi) from a concentrated central core, it will exploit <a href="Radio_astronomy" title="Radio astronomy">radio astronomy</a>'s ability to provide the highest-resolution images in all astronomy.

The SKAO consortium was founded in <a href="Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> in March 2019 by seven initial member countries, with several others subsequently joining; as of 2021 there were 14 members of the consortium. This international organisation is tasked with building and operating the facility. The project has two phases of construction: the current SKA1, commonly just called SKA, and a possible later significantly enlarged phase sometimes called SKA2. The construction phase of the project began on 5 December 2022 in both South Africa and Australia.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

The Square Kilometre Array (SKA) was originally conceived in 1991 with an international working group set up in 1993. This led to the signing of the first Memorandum of Agreement in 2000.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a>

In the early days of planning, China vied to host the SKA, proposing to build several large dishes in the natural limestone depressions (<a href="Karst" title="Karst">karst</a>) that dimple its southwestern provinces; China called their proposal <a href="KARST" title="KARST">Kilometer-square Area Radio Synthesis Telescope</a> (KARST).<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a>

Australia's first <a href="Radio_quiet_zone" title="Radio quiet zone">radio quiet zone</a> was established by the <a href="Australian_Communications_and_Media_Authority" title="Australian Communications and Media Authority">Australian Communications and Media Authority</a> on 11 April 2005 specifically to protect and maintain the current "radio-quietness" of the main Australian SKA site at the <a href="Murchison_Radio-astronomy_Observatory" title="Murchison Radio-astronomy Observatory">Murchison Radio-astronomy Observatory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a>

The project has two phases of construction: the current SKA1, commonly just called SKA, and a possible later significantly enlarged phase sometimes called SKA2.<a href="#cite_note-SKAO_2022-5">[5]</a> PrepSKA commenced in 2008, leading to a full SKA design in 2012. Construction of Phase 1 was scheduled to take place from 2018 to 2020, providing an operational array, with Phase 2 completion in 2025.

In April 2011, <a href="Jodrell_Bank_Observatory" title="Jodrell Bank Observatory">Jodrell Bank Observatory</a> of the <a href="University_of_Manchester" title="University of Manchester">University of Manchester</a>, in <a href="Cheshire" title="Cheshire">Cheshire</a>, England was announced as the location for the project headquarters.<a href="#cite_note-BBC2011-04-02-6">[6]</a> In November 2011, the SKA Organisation was formed as an <a href="Intergovernmental_organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Intergovernmental organisation">intergovernmental organisation</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> and the project moved from a collaboration to an independent, not for profit, company.<a href="#cite_note-SKAorg-8">[8]</a>

In February 2012, a former Australian SKA Committee chairman raised concerns with South African media about risks at the Australian candidate site, particularly in terms of cost, mining interference and land agreements. SKA Australia stated that all points had been addressed in the site bid.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> In March 2012 it was reported that the SKA Site Advisory Committee had made a confidential report in February that the South African bid was stronger.<a href="#cite_note-age_20120309-10">[10]</a> However a scientific working group was set up to explore possible implementation options of the two candidate host regions,<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> and on 25 May 2012 it was announced that it had been determined that the SKA would be split over the South African and African sites, and the Australia and New Zealand sites.<a href="#cite_note-bbc1-12">[12]</a> While New Zealand remained a member of the SKA Organisation in 2014, it appeared that no SKA infrastructure was likely to be located in New Zealand.<a href="#cite_note-Australia-13">[13]</a>

In April 2015, the headquarters of the SKA project were chosen to be located at the <a href="Jodrell_Bank_Observatory" title="Jodrell Bank Observatory">Jodrell Bank Observatory</a> in the UK,<a href="#cite_note-ska20141028-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-bbc20150429-15">[15]</a> officially opened in July 2019.

Initial construction contracts began in 2018. Scientific observations with the fully completed array are not expected any earlier than 2027.<a href="#cite_note-physicsworld201907-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a>

On 12 March 2019, the Square Kilometre Array Observatory (SKAO) was founded in Rome by seven initial member countries: Australia, China, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, South Africa and the United Kingdom. India and Sweden are expected to follow shortly, and eight other countries have expressed interest to join in the future. This international organisation was tasked with building and operating the facility, with the first construction contracts expected to be awarded in late 2020.<a href="#cite_note-skao-founding-18">[18]</a>

By mid-2019, the start of scientific observations were expected to start no earlier than 2027.<a href="#cite_note-physicsworld201907-16">[16]</a> In July 2019, New Zealand withdrew from the project.<a href="#cite_note-physicsworld201907-16">[16]</a>

As of November 2020, five precursor facilities were already operating: <a href="MeerKAT" title="MeerKAT">MeerKAT</a> and the <a href="Hydrogen_Epoch_of_Reionization_Array" title="Hydrogen Epoch of Reionization Array">Hydrogen Epoch of Reionization Array</a> (HERA) in South Africa, the <a href="Australian_SKA_Pathfinder" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian SKA Pathfinder">Australian SKA Pathfinder</a> (ASKAP) and <a href="Murchison_Widefield_Array" title="Murchison Widefield Array">Murchison Widefield Array</a> (MWA) in <a href="Western_Australia" title="Western Australia">Western Australia</a> and the International LOFAR Telescope, spread across Europe with a core in the Netherlands.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a>

The construction phase of the project began on 5 December 2022 in Australia and South Africa, with delegations from each of the eight countries leading the project attending ceremonies to celebrate the event.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> The Australian part of the project comprises 100,000 antennas built across 74 km (46 mi), also in the <a href="Murchison_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Murchison region">Murchison region</a>, in the <a href="Traditional_owners" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional owners">traditional lands</a> of the <a href="Wajarri" title="Wajarri">Wajarri</a> Aboriginal people. <a href="Bulldozer" title="Bulldozer">Bulldozers</a> were expected to start working on the site in early 2023, with the completion date estimated as 2028. The site has been named Inyarrimanha Ilgari Bundara, which means 'sharing sky and stars' in the <a href="Wajarri_language" title="Wajarri language">Wajarri language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-firstoz2022-21">[21]</a>

The <a href="Department_of_Atomic_Energy" title="Department of Atomic Energy">Department of Atomic Energy</a> (DAE) in India and <a href="UK_Research_and_Innovation" title="UK Research and Innovation">UK Research and Innovation</a> (UKRI) are investigating the possibility of establishing <a href="Supercomputing" class="mw-redirect" title="Supercomputing">supercomputing</a> facilities to handle data from the Square Kilometre Array radio telescope. The UK and India are part of the team developing the computational processing for the SKA radio telescope.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> On 3 January 2024, Indian government approved joining the SKA project accompanied by a financial commitment of ₹1,250 crore which marks the initial step towards ratification as a member state.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description">Description</h2></div>

The SKA will combine the signals received from thousands of small <a href="Antenna_(radio)" title="Antenna (radio)">antennas</a> spread over a distance of several thousand kilometres to simulate a single giant radio telescope capable of extremely high sensitivity and angular resolution, using a technique called <a href="Aperture_synthesis" title="Aperture synthesis">aperture synthesis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-skalayout-25">[25]</a> Some of the sub-arrays of the SKA will also have a very large <a href="Field_of_view" title="Field of view">field-of-view</a> (FOV), making it possible to survey very large areas of sky at once.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> One innovative development is the use of <a href="Focal-plane_array_(radio_astronomy)" title="Focal-plane array (radio astronomy)">focal-plane arrays</a> using <a href="Phased-array" class="mw-redirect" title="Phased-array">phased-array</a> technology to provide multiple FOVs.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> This will greatly increase the survey speed of the SKA and enable several users to observe different pieces of the sky simultaneously, which is useful for (e.g.) monitoring multiple pulsars. The combination of a very large FOV with high sensitivity means that the SKA will be able to compile extremely large surveys of the sky considerably faster than any other telescope.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a>

The combined SKA will provide a wide range of coverage, with Australia's Murchison Widefield Array providing low-frequency coverage and South Africa's MeerKAT providing mid-frequency coverage.<a href="#cite_note-facts-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-SKAO_2022-5">[5]</a> There will be continuous frequency coverage from 50 MHz to 14 GHz in the first two phases of its construction.

<ul><li>Phase 1: Providing ~10% of the total collecting area at low and mid frequencies by 2023 (SKA1).<a href="#cite_note-ska1-31">[31]</a></li>

<li>Phase 2: Completion of the full array (SKA2) at low and mid frequencies by 2030.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></li></ul>

The frequency range from 50 MHz to 14 GHz, spanning more than two <a href="Decade_(log_scale)" title="Decade (log scale)">decades</a>, cannot be realised using one design of antenna and so the SKA will comprise separate sub-arrays of different types of antenna elements that will make up the SKA-low, SKA-mid and survey arrays:

<ol><li>SKA-low array: a phased array of simple <a href="Dipole_antenna" title="Dipole antenna">dipole antennas</a> to cover the frequency range from 50 to 350 MHz. These will be grouped in 40 m diameter stations each containing 256 vertically oriented dual-polarisation dipole elements.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Stations will be arranged with 75% located within a 2 km diameter core and the remaining stations situated on three spiral arms, extending out to a radius of 50 km.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></li>

<li>SKA-mid array: an array of several thousand <a href="Parabolic_antenna" title="Parabolic antenna">dish antennas</a> (around 200 to be built in Phase 1) to cover the frequency range 350 MHz to 14 GHz. It is expected that the antenna design will follow that of the <a href="Allen_Telescope_Array" title="Allen Telescope Array">Allen Telescope Array</a> using an offset Gregorian design having a height of 15 metres and a width of 12 metres.<a href="#cite_note-ska1-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></li>

<li>SKA-survey array: a compact array of parabolic dishes of 12–15 meters diameter each for the medium-frequency range, each equipped with a multi-beam, phased array feed with a large field of view and several receiving systems covering about 350 MHz – 4 GHz. The survey sub-array was removed from the SKA1 specification following a "rebaselining" exercise in 2015.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></li></ol>

The area covered by the SKA – extending out to ~3000 km – will comprise three regions:<a href="#cite_note-skalayout-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a>

<ol><li>A central region containing about 5 km diameter cores of SKA-mid antennas (South Africa) and SKA-low dipoles (Western Australia). These central regions will contain approximately half of the total collecting area of the SKA arrays.</li>

<li>A mid region extending out to 180 km. This will contain dishes and pairs of SKA-mid and SKA-low stations. In each case they will be randomly placed within the area with the density of dishes and stations falling off towards the outer part of the region.</li>

<li>An outer region from 180 km to 3000 km. This will comprise five spiral arms, along which dishes of SKA-mid, grouped into stations of 20 dishes, will be located. The separation of the stations increases towards the outer ends of the spiral arms.</li></ol>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Costs">Costs</h3></div>

The SKA was estimated to cost €1.8 billion in 2014, including €650 million for Phase 1, which represented about 10% of the planned capability of the entire telescope array.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> There have been numerous delays and rising costs over the nearly 30-year history of the intergovernmental project.<a href="#cite_note-physicsworld201907-16">[16]</a>

As of December 2022, the whole project was reported to be worth around A$3 billion.<a href="#cite_note-firstoz2022-21">[21]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Members">Members</h3></div>

As per March 2025, the members of the SKAO consortium were:<a href="#cite_note-SKAorg-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a>

<ul><li>Founding members:

<ul><li>Australia: <a href="Department_of_Industry_and_Science" title="Department of Industry and Science">Department of Industry and Science</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></li>

<li>China: National Remote Sensing Centre of the <a href="Ministry_of_Science_and_Technology_(China)" title="Ministry of Science and Technology (China)">Ministry of Science and Technology of the People's Republic of China</a> (中华人民共和国科学技术部 - Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó Kēxué Jìshùbù)<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></li>

<li>Italy: <a href="Istituto_Nazionale_di_Astrofisica" class="mw-redirect" title="Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica">National Institute for Astrophysics</a> (Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica)<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></li>

<li>Portugal: <a href="Portugal_Space" title="Portugal Space">Portugal Space Agency</a> (Agência Espacial Portuguesa)<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></li>

<li>South Africa: South African Radio Astronomy Observatory of the <a href="National_Research_Foundation_of_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="National Research Foundation of South Africa">National Research Foundation</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></li>

<li>The Netherlands: <a href="ASTRON" title="ASTRON">ASTRON - Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy</a> ( (ASTRON - Astronomisch Onderzoek in Nederland)<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></li>

<li>United Kingdom: <a href="Science_and_Technology_Facilities_Council" title="Science and Technology Facilities Council">Science and Technology Facilities Council</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></li></ul></li></ul>

<ul><li>Joined in 2022:

<ul><li>Switzerland: SKACH Consortium<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></li></ul></li></ul>

<ul><li>Joined in 2023:

<ul><li>Spain: <a href="Institute_of_Astrophysics_of_Andalusia" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of Astrophysics of Andalusia">Institute of Astrophysics of Andalusia</a> (Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía)<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></li></ul></li></ul>

<ul><li>Joined in 2024:

<ul><li>Canada: Radio Astronomy Directorate of the <a href="National_Research_Council_(Canada)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Research Council (Canada)">National Research Council</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></li>

<li>Germany: Association for Data-Intensive Radio Astronomy (Verein für datenintensive Radioastronomie e.V.)<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></li>

<li>India: <a href="National_Centre_for_Radio_Astrophysics" title="National Centre for Radio Astrophysics">National Centre for Radio Astrophysics</a> (राष्ट्रीय रेडियो खगोल भौतिकी केन्द्र - Raashtreey Rediyo Khagol Bhautikee Kendr)<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></li></ul></li></ul>

<ul><li>Observers:

<ul><li>France: <a href="French_National_Centre_for_Scientific_Research" title="French National Centre for Scientific Research">National Centre for Scientific Research</a> (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique)<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></li>

<li>Japan: <a href="National_Astronomical_Observatory_of_Japan" title="National Astronomical Observatory of Japan">National Astronomical Observatory</a> (国立天文台 - Kokuritsu Tenmondai)<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></li>

<li>Korea: <a href="Korea_Astronomy_and_Space_Science_Institute" title="Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute">Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute</a> (한국천문연구원 - Hangugcheonmun-Yeonguwon)<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></li>

<li>Sweden: <a href="Onsala_Space_Observatory" title="Onsala Space Observatory">Onsala Space Observatory</a> - <a href="Chalmers_University_of_Technology" title="Chalmers University of Technology">Chalmers University of Technology</a> (Onsala rymdobservatorium - Chalmers tekniska högskola)<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></li></ul></li></ul>

<ul><li>African Patners, involved in coordinated action to support the future expansion of the SKA project in Africa:

<ul><li>Botswana</li>

<li>Ghana</li>

<li>Kenya</li>

<li>Madagascar</li>

<li>Mauritius</li>

<li>Mozambique</li>

<li>Namibia</li>

<li>Zambia</li></ul></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="SKA_locations">SKA locations</h2></div>

The headquarters of the SKA are located at the <a href="University_of_Manchester" title="University of Manchester">University of Manchester</a>'s <a href="Jodrell_Bank_Observatory" title="Jodrell Bank Observatory">Jodrell Bank Observatory</a> in <a href="Cheshire" title="Cheshire">Cheshire</a>, England,<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> while the telescopes will be installed in Australia and South Africa.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a>

Suitable sites for the SKA telescope must be in unpopulated areas with guaranteed very low levels of man-made radio interference. Four sites were initially proposed in South Africa, Australia, Argentina and China.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> After considerable site evaluation surveys, Argentina and China were dropped and the other two sites were shortlisted (with New Zealand joining the Australian bid, and 8 other African countries joining the South African bid):<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia">Australia</h3></div>

The core site is located at the <a href="Murchison_Radio-astronomy_Observatory" title="Murchison Radio-astronomy Observatory">Murchison Radio-astronomy Observatory</a> (MRO) at <a href="Mileura_Station" title="Mileura Station">Mileura Station</a> near <a href="Boolardy" title="Boolardy">Boolardy</a> in the state of <a href="Western_Australia" title="Western Australia">Western Australia</a>, 315 km (196 mi) north-east of <a href="Geraldton%2C_Western_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Geraldton, Western Australia">Geraldton</a><a href="#cite_note-bbc-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_Africa">South Africa</h3></div>

The core site is located at the <a href="Meerkat_National_Park" title="Meerkat National Park">Meerkat National Park</a>, at an elevation of about 1000 metres, in the <a href="Karoo" title="Karoo">Karoo</a> area of the arid <a href="Northern_Cape" title="Northern Cape">Northern Cape</a> Province. There are also distant stations in <a href="Botswana" title="Botswana">Botswana</a>, <a href="Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>, <a href="Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a>, <a href="Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>, <a href="Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a>, <a href="Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a>, <a href="Namibia" title="Namibia">Namibia</a> and <a href="Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Precursors,_pathfinders_and_design_studies">Precursors, pathfinders and design studies</h2></div>

Many groups are working globally to develop the technology and techniques required for the SKA. Their contributions to the international SKA project are classified as either: Precursors, Pathfinders or Design Studies.

<ul><li>Precursor facility: A telescope on one of the two SKA candidate sites, carrying out SKA-related activity.</li>

<li>Pathfinder: A telescope or programme carrying out SKA-related technology, science and operations activity.</li>

<li>Design Study: A study of one or more major sub-systems of the SKA design, including the construction of prototypes</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Precursor_facilities">Precursor facilities</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Australian_SKA_Pathfinder_(ASKAP)">Australian SKA Pathfinder (ASKAP)</h4></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Australian_Square_Kilometre_Array_Pathfinder" title="Australian Square Kilometre Array Pathfinder">Australian Square Kilometre Array Pathfinder</a></div>

The Australian SKA Pathfinder, or ASKAP, is an A$100 million project which built a telescope array of thirty-six twelve-metre dishes. It employs advanced, innovative technologies such as <a href="Focal-plane_array_(radio_astronomy)" title="Focal-plane array (radio astronomy)">phased array feeds</a> to give a wide field of view (30 square degrees). ASKAP was built by <a href="CSIRO" title="CSIRO">CSIRO</a> at the Murchison Radio-astronomy Observatory site, located near <a href="Boolardy" title="Boolardy">Boolardy</a> in the mid-west region of Western Australia. All 36 antennas and their technical systems were officially opened in October 2012.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="MeerKAT">MeerKAT</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="MeerKAT" title="MeerKAT">MeerKAT</a></div>

MeerKAT is a South African project consisting of an array of sixty-four 13.5-metre diameter dishes as a world class science instrument, and was also built to help develop technology for the SKA.

<a href="KAT-7" title="KAT-7">KAT-7</a>, a seven-dish engineering and science testbed instrument for MeerKAT, in the <a href="Meerkat_National_Park" title="Meerkat National Park">Meerkat National Park</a> near <a href="Carnarvon%2C_South_Africa" title="Carnarvon, South Africa">Carnarvon</a> in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa was commissioned in 2012 and was up and running by May 2018 when all sixty-four 13.5-metre diameter (44.3 feet) dish antennae were completed, with verification tests then underway to ensure the instruments are functioning correctly.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> The dishes are equipped with a number of high performance single pixel feeds to cover frequencies from 580 MHz up to 14 GHz.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Murchison_Widefield_Array_(MWA)">Murchison Widefield Array (MWA)</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Murchison_Widefield_Array" title="Murchison Widefield Array">Murchison Widefield Array</a></div>

The Murchison Widefield Array<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> is a low-frequency <a href="Astronomical_interferometer" title="Astronomical interferometer">radio array</a> operating in the frequency range 80–300 MHz that began upgraded operation in 2018 at the Murchison Radio-astronomy Observatory site in Western Australia.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hydrogen_Epoch_of_Reionization_Array_(HERA)">Hydrogen Epoch of Reionization Array (HERA)</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Hydrogen_Epoch_of_Reionization_Array" title="Hydrogen Epoch of Reionization Array">Hydrogen Epoch of Reionization Array</a></div>

The HERA array is located in South Africa's Meerkat National Park. It is designed to study highly redshifted <a href="Hydrogen_line" title="Hydrogen line">atomic hydrogen emission</a> emitted prior to, and during the epoch of reionization.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pathfinders">Pathfinders</h3></div>

<ul><li><a href="Westerbork_Synthesis_Radio_Telescope" title="Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope">APERture Tile in Focus</a> (Apertif)<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></li>

<li><a href="Very_Long_Baseline_Interferometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Very Long Baseline Interferometry">Very Long Baseline Interferometry</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></li>

<li><a href="EMBRACE_(telescope)" title="EMBRACE (telescope)">Electronic MultiBeam Radio Astronomy ConcEpt</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></li>

<li><a href="E-MERLIN" class="mw-redirect" title="E-MERLIN">e-MERLIN</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></li>

<li><a href="Expanded_Very_Large_Array" class="mw-redirect" title="Expanded Very Large Array">Expanded Very Large Array</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></li>

<li><a href="Long_Wavelength_Array" title="Long Wavelength Array">Long Wavelength Array</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></li>

<li><a href="Molonglo_Observatory_Synthesis_Telescope#Square_Kilometre_Array_development" title="Molonglo Observatory Synthesis Telescope">SKA Molonglo Prototype</a> (SKAMP)<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></li>

<li><a href="NenuFAR" class="mw-redirect" title="NenuFAR">NenuFAR</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></li>

<li><a href="Giant_Metrewave_Radio_Telescope" title="Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope">Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Allen_Telescope_Array">Allen Telescope Array</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Allen_Telescope_Array" title="Allen Telescope Array">Allen Telescope Array</a></div>

The Allen Telescope Array in California uses innovative 6.1m offset Gregorian dishes equipped with wide band single feeds covering frequencies from 500 MHz to 11 GHz. The 42-element array in operation by 2017 is to be extended to 350 elements. The dish design has explored methods of low-cost manufacture.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="LOFAR">LOFAR</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Low-Frequency_Array_(LOFAR)" class="mw-redirect" title="Low-Frequency Array (LOFAR)">Low-Frequency Array (LOFAR)</a></div>

The International LOFAR Telescope —a €150 million Dutch-led project— a novel low-frequency phased aperture array spread over northern Europe. An all-electronic telescope covering low frequencies from 10 to 240 MHz, it came online from 2009 to 2011. LOFAR was in 2017 developing crucial processing techniques for the SKA.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a>. Because of its baselines of up to 2000 km, it can make images with sub-arcsecond angular resolution over a wide field of view. Such high-resolution imaging at low frequencies is unique and will be a factor of more than an order of magnitude better than SKA1-LOW.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Design_studies">Design studies</h3></div>

<th colspan="5" bgcolor="#EFEFEF" align="center">Data challenges of SKA pathfinders

</th></tr>

<td align="center">Challenge

</td>

<td align="center">Specifications<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> budgeted for ASKAP Requirements for the SKA itself are about 100 times greater.

</td></tr>

<td align="center">Large bandwidth from telescope to processor

</td>

<td align="center">~10 Tbit/s from antennas to correlator (< 6 km) 40 Gbit/s from correlator to processor (~ 600 km)

</td></tr>

<td align="center">Large processing power

</td>

<td align="center">750 Tflop/s expected/budgeted 1 Pflop desired

</td></tr>

<td align="center">Power consumption of processors

</td>

<td align="center">1 MW at site 10 MW for processor

</td></tr>

<td align="center">Pipeline processing essential

</td>

<td align="center">including data validation, source extraction, cross-identification, etc.

</td></tr>

<td align="center">Storage and duration of data

</td>

<td align="center">70 PB/yr if all products are kept 5 PB/yr with current funding 8 h to write 12 h of data to disk at 10 GB/s

</td></tr>

<td align="center">Retrieval of data by users

</td>

<td align="center">all data in public domain accessed using VO tools & services

</td></tr>

<td align="center">Data-intensive research

</td>

<td align="center">data mining, stacking, cross-correlation, etc.

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<ul><li>Aperture Array Verification Programme<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></li>

<li>Canadian SKA Program<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></li>

<li>Preparatory Study for the SKA<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a></li>

<li>Square Kilometre Array Design Studies (SKADS)<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a>

<ul><li><a href="EMBRACE_(telescope)" title="EMBRACE (telescope)">Electronic MultiBeam Radio Astronomy ConcEpt</a> (EMBRACE)<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a></li>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Data_challenges">Data challenges</h4></div>

The amount of sensory data collected poses a huge storage problem, and will require real-time <a href="Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">signal processing</a> to reduce the raw data to relevant derived information. In mid 2011 it was estimated the array could generate an <a href="Exabyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Exabyte">exabyte</a> a day of raw data, which could be compressed to around 10 <a href="Petabyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Petabyte">petabytes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ttgmd-90">[90]</a> China, a founding member of the project, has designed and constructed the first prototype of the regional data processing centre. An Tao, head of the SKA group of the <a href="Shanghai_Astronomical_Observatory" title="Shanghai Astronomical Observatory">Shanghai Astronomical Observatory</a>, stated, "It will generate data streams far beyond the total Internet traffic worldwide." The <a href="Tianhe-2" title="Tianhe-2">Tianhe-2</a> supercomputer was used in 2016 to train the software. The processing of the project will be performed on Chinese-designed and -manufactured<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Virtex-7 processors by <a href="Xilinx" title="Xilinx">Xilinx</a>, integrated into platforms by the <a href="CSIRO" title="CSIRO">CSIRO</a>.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> China has pushed for a unified <a href="Beamforming" title="Beamforming">beamforming</a> design that has led other major countries to drop out of the project.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Canada continues to use Altera Stratix-10 processors (by <a href="Intel" title="Intel">Intel</a>).<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> It is illegal for any US company to export high end Intel <a href="Field-programmable_gate_array" title="Field-programmable gate array">FPGAs</a> or any related CSP design details or firmware to China<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> amid the US-embargo<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> which will severely limit cooperation.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Technology_Development_Project_(TDP)">Technology Development Project (TDP)</h4></div>

The Technology Development Project, or TDP, is a US$12 million project to specifically develop dish and feed technology for the SKA. It is operated by a consortium of universities and was completed in 2012.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Project_risks_and_opposition">Project risks and opposition</h2></div>

Potential risks for priority astronomical sites in South Africa are protected by the Astronomy Geographic Advantage Act of 2007.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Put in place to specifically support the South African SKA bid, it outlaws all activities that could endanger scientific operation of core astronomical instruments. In 2010, concerns were raised over the will to enforce this law when <a href="Royal_Dutch_Shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Dutch Shell">Royal Dutch Shell</a> applied to explore the <a href="Karoo" title="Karoo">Karoo</a> for <a href="Shale_gas" title="Shale gas">shale gas</a> using <a href="Hydraulic_fracturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic fracturing">hydraulic fracturing</a>, an activity that would have the potential to increase <a href="Radio_interference" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio interference">radio interference</a> at the site.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a>

An identified remote station location for the southern African array in <a href="Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a> was subject to flooding and excluded from the project,<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> despite the SKA Site Selection Committee technical analysis reporting that all African remote stations could implement flood mitigation solutions.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a>

During 2014, South Africa experienced a month-long strike action by the <a href="National_Union_of_Metalworkers_of_South_Africa" title="National Union of Metalworkers of South Africa">National Union of Metalworkers</a> (NUMSA), which added to the delays of the installation of dishes.<a href="#cite_note-Strike_action-106">[106]</a>

The largest risk to the overall project is probably its budget, which up until 2014 had not been committed.<a href="#cite_note-SKA_Project-107">[107]</a>

There has been opposition to the project from farmers, businesses, and individuals in South Africa since the project's inception.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> The advocacy group called Save the Karoo has stated that the radio quiet zone would create further unemployment in the South African region where unemployment is already above 32%.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Farmers had stated that the agriculture-based economy in the Karoo would collapse if they were forced to sell their land.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Key_projects">Key projects</h2></div>

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The capabilities of the SKA will be designed to address a wide range of questions in <a href="Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">astrophysics</a>, <a href="Fundamental_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamental physics">fundamental physics</a>, <a href="Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">cosmology</a> and <a href="Particle_astrophysics" class="mw-redirect" title="Particle astrophysics">particle astrophysics</a> as well as extending the range of the <a href="Observable_universe" title="Observable universe">observable universe</a>. A number of key science projects that have been selected for implementation via the SKA are listed below.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extreme_tests_of_general_relativity">Extreme tests of general relativity</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Tests_of_general_relativity" title="Tests of general relativity">Tests of general relativity</a></div>

For almost one hundred years, <a href="Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>'s <a href="General_theory_of_relativity" class="mw-redirect" title="General theory of relativity">general theory of relativity</a> has precisely predicted the outcome of every experiment made to test it. Most of these tests, including the most stringent ones, have been carried out using radio astronomical measurements. By using <a href="Pulsars" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulsars">pulsars</a> as cosmic <a href="Gravitational_wave" title="Gravitational wave">gravitational wave</a> detectors, or timing pulsars found orbiting <a href="Black_holes" class="mw-redirect" title="Black holes">black holes</a>, astronomers will be able to examine the limits of general relativity such as the behaviour of <a href="Spacetime" title="Spacetime">spacetime</a> in regions of extremely curved space. The goal is to reveal whether Einstein was correct in his description of space, time and gravity, or whether <a href="Alternatives_to_general_relativity" title="Alternatives to general relativity">alternatives to general relativity</a> are needed to account for these phenomena.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Galaxies,_cosmology,_dark_matter_and_dark_energy">Galaxies, cosmology, dark matter and dark energy</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Galaxy_formation_and_evolution" title="Galaxy formation and evolution">Galaxy formation and evolution</a> and <a href="Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">Dark matter</a></div>

The sensitivity of the SKA in the <a href="Hydrogen_line" title="Hydrogen line">21 cm hydrogen line</a> will map a billion galaxies out to the edge of the observable Universe. The <a href="Large-scale_structure_of_the_cosmos" class="mw-redirect" title="Large-scale structure of the cosmos">large-scale structure of the cosmos</a> thus revealed will give constraints to determine the processes resulting in <a href="Galaxy_formation_and_evolution" title="Galaxy formation and evolution">galaxy formation and evolution</a>. Imaging <a href="Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> throughout the Universe will provide a <a href="Three-dimensional_space" title="Three-dimensional space">three-dimensional</a> picture of the first ripples of structure that formed individual galaxies and clusters. This may also allow the measurement of effects <a href="Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothetically</a> caused by <a href="Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">dark energy</a> and causing the increasing <a href="Hubble's_law" title="Hubble's law">rate of expansion of the universe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a>

The cosmological measurements enabled by SKA galaxy surveys include testing models of dark energy,<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> gravity,<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> the primordial universe,<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> and fundamental cosmology,<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> and they are summarised in a series of papers available online.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epoch_of_re-ionization">Epoch of re-ionization</h3></div>

The SKA is intended to provide observational data from the so-called <a href="Timeline_of_the_Big_Bang" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the Big Bang">Dark Ages</a> (between 300,000 years after the <a href="Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> when the universe became cool enough for hydrogen to become neutral and decouple from radiation) and the time of <a href="First_light_(cosmology)" class="mw-redirect" title="First light (cosmology)">First Light</a> (a billion years later when young galaxies are seen to form for the first time and hydrogen becomes ionized again). By observing the primordial distribution of gas, the SKA should be able to see how the Universe gradually lit up as its stars and galaxies formed and then evolved. This period of the Dark Ages, culminating in First Light, is considered the first chapter in the cosmic story of creation, and the resolving power required to see this event is the reason for the Square Kilometre Array's design. To see back to First Light requires a telescope 100 times more powerful than the biggest radio telescopes currently in the world, taking up 1 million square metres of collecting area, or one square kilometre.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cosmic_magnetism">Cosmic magnetism</h3></div>

It is still not possible to answer basic questions about the origin and evolution of <a href="Magnetism" title="Magnetism">cosmic magnetic fields</a>, but it is clear that they are an important component of interstellar and intergalactic space. By mapping the effects of magnetism on the radiation from very distant galaxies, the SKA will investigate the form of cosmic magnetism and the role it has played in the evolving Universe.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Search_for_extraterrestrial_life">Search for extraterrestrial life</h3></div>

This key science program, called "Cradle of Life", will focus on three objectives: observing <a href="Protoplanetary_disc" class="mw-redirect" title="Protoplanetary disc">protoplanetary discs</a> in <a href="Circumstellar_habitable_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Circumstellar habitable zone">habitable zones</a>, searching for prebiotic chemistry, and contributing to the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (<a href="SETI" class="mw-redirect" title="SETI">SETI</a>).<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a>

<ul><li>The SKA will be able to probe the <a href="Circumstellar_habitable_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Circumstellar habitable zone">habitable zone</a> of Sun-like <a href="Protostar" title="Protostar">protostars</a>, where <a href="Earth_analog" title="Earth analog">Earth-like planets</a> or moons are most likely to have environments favourable for the <a href="Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">development of life</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Life-123">[123]</a> The signatures of forming Earth-like planets imprinted on circumstellar dust may be the most conspicuous evidence of their presence and evolution,<a href="#cite_note-Life-123">[123]</a> and may even detect <a href="Planetary_habitability" title="Planetary habitability">planets capable of supporting life</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Life-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></li>

<li><a href="Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiologists</a> will also use the SKA to search for complex <a href="Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compounds</a> (carbon-containing chemicals) in outer space, including <a href="Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a>, by identifying spectral lines at specific frequencies.<a href="#cite_note-Life-123">[123]</a></li>

<li>The SKA will be capable of detecting extremely weak radio emission "leakage" from nearby <a href="Extraterrestrial_life" title="Extraterrestrial life">extraterrestrial</a> civilizations, if they exist.<a href="#cite_note-Life-123">[123]</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Five-hundred-meter_Aperture_Spherical_Telescope" title="Five-hundred-meter Aperture Spherical Telescope">Five-hundred-meter Aperture Spherical Telescope</a></li>

<li><a href="KARST" title="KARST">KARST</a> – a 1990s Chinese proposal to host the SKA</li>

<li><a href="List_of_radio_telescopes" title="List of radio telescopes">List of radio telescopes</a></li>

<li><a href="Low-Frequency_Array_(LOFAR)" class="mw-redirect" title="Low-Frequency Array (LOFAR)">LOFAR</a></li>

<li><a href="Mills_Cross_Telescope" title="Mills Cross Telescope">Mills Cross Telescope</a> – related to the SKA development</li>

<li><a href="Simon_Ratcliffe_(astronomer)" title="Simon Ratcliffe (astronomer)">Simon Ratcliffe</a></li>

<li><a href="Project_Cyclops" title="Project Cyclops">Project Cyclops</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Square_Kilometre_Array" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Square Kilometre Array">Square Kilometre Array</a>.</div></div>

</div>

International

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.skatelescope.org/">SKA website</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scholarpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Square_kilometre_array&editsenior=1/">SKA on Scholarpedia</a></li></ul>

Australia/NZ

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ska.gov.au">SKA Australia web site</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120404100722/http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/node/5201">"Inside the Square Kilometre Array"</a>, Cosmos magazine online, January 2012</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://theconversation.edu.au/pages/square-kilometre-array">"The Square Kilometre Array Category"</a>, The Conversation, 2011/12</li>

<li><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120512034007/http://www.ska.gov.au/Pages/default.aspx">"Australian SKA Planning Office Newsletter"</a>. CSIRO. 10 April 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atnf.csiro.au/news/aspo-newsletter/ASPO_newsletter_10.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 12 May 2012. Retrieved 19 March 2007.</cite></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astro.uwa.edu.au/ska/mro">Boolardy Station and the Murchison Radio-Astronomy Observatory (MRO)</a> – University of Western Australia</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100918221820/http://local.wasp.uwa.edu.au/data/Boolardy/">Photographs from the Boolardy site, June 2010</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ska-at-carnarvon.com">A Trojan Affair</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181123161221/http://www.ska-at-carnarvon.com/">Archived</a> 23 November 2018 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> - Novel about the SKA</li></ul>

Canada

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140506012419/http://www.skatelescope.ca/">Canadian SKA Consortium web site</a></li></ul>

Europe

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.skads-eu.org/">SKA Design Studies web site</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111230231313/http://www.skads-eu.org/">Archived</a> 30 December 2011 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul>

South Africa

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ska.ac.za">SKA South Africa web site</a></li></ul>

Other

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFMerrifieldCrowther,_Paul" class="citation web cs1">Merrifield, Michael; Crowther, Paul. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deepskyvideos.com/videos/other/SKA_decision.html">"Where to Build The Square Kilometre Array?"</a>. Deep Space Videos. <a href="Brady_Haran" title="Brady Haran">Brady Haran</a>.</cite></li>

<li> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Square_Kilometre_Array" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Square Kilometre Array">Square Kilometre Array</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul>

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</style><div id="Radio_astronomy459" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Radio_astronomy" title="Radio astronomy">Radio astronomy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.4em;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Units (<a href="Watt" title="Watt">watt</a> and <a href="Jansky" title="Jansky">jansky</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Radio_telescope" title="Radio telescope">Radio telescope</a> (<a href="Radio_window" title="Radio window">Radio window</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Astronomical_interferometer" title="Astronomical interferometer">Astronomical interferometer</a> (<a href="Astronomical_interferometer#History" title="Astronomical interferometer">History</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Very-long-baseline_interferometry" title="Very-long-baseline interferometry">Very Long Baseline Interferometry</a> (VLBI)</li>

<li><a href="Astronomical_radio_source" title="Astronomical radio source">Astronomical radio source</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.4em;">Radio telescopes (<a href="List_of_radio_telescopes" title="List of radio telescopes">List</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Individual telescopes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Five-hundred-meter_Aperture_Spherical_Telescope" title="Five-hundred-meter Aperture Spherical Telescope">500 meter Aperture Spherical Telescope</a> (FAST, China)</li>

<li><a href="Arecibo_Telescope" title="Arecibo Telescope">Arecibo Telescope</a> (Puerto Rico, US)</li>

<li><a href="Caltech_Submillimeter_Observatory" title="Caltech Submillimeter Observatory">Caltech Submillimeter Observatory</a> (CSO, US)</li>

<li><a href="Effelsberg_100-m_Radio_Telescope" title="Effelsberg 100-m Radio Telescope">Effelsberg Telescope</a> (Germany)</li>

<li><a href="Galenki_RT-70_radio_telescope" title="Galenki RT-70 radio telescope">Galenki RT-70</a> (Russia)</li>

<li><a href="Green_Bank_Telescope" title="Green Bank Telescope">Green Bank Telescope</a> (West Virginia, US)</li>

<li><a href="Large_Millimeter_Telescope" title="Large Millimeter Telescope">Large Millimeter Telescope</a> (Mexico)</li>

<li><a href="Lovell_Telescope" title="Lovell Telescope">Lovell Telescope</a> (UK)</li>

<li><a href="Ooty_Radio_Telescope" title="Ooty Radio Telescope">Ooty Telescope</a> (India)</li>

<li><a href="Qitai_Radio_Telescope" title="Qitai Radio Telescope">Qitai Radio Telescope</a> (China)</li>

<li><a href="RATAN-600" title="RATAN-600">RATAN-600 Radio Telescope</a> (Russia)</li>

<li><a href="Sardinia_Radio_Telescope" title="Sardinia Radio Telescope">Sardinia Radio Telescope</a> (Italy)</li>

<li><a href="Suffa_RT-70_radio_telescope" title="Suffa RT-70 radio telescope">Suffa RT-70</a> (Uzbekistan)</li>

<li><a href="Usuda_Deep_Space_Center" title="Usuda Deep Space Center">Usuda Telescope</a> (Japan)</li>

<li><a href="Ukrainian_T-shaped_Radio_telescope%2C_second_modification" title="Ukrainian T-shaped Radio telescope, second modification">UTR-2 decameter radio telescope</a> (Ukraine)</li>

<li><a href="Yevpatoria_RT-70_radio_telescope" title="Yevpatoria RT-70 radio telescope">Yevpatoria RT-70</a> (Ukraine)</li></ul>

<dl><dt>Southern Hemisphere</dt>

<dd><a href="Hartebeesthoek_Radio_Astronomy_Observatory" title="Hartebeesthoek Radio Astronomy Observatory">HartRAO</a> (South Africa)</dd>

<dd><a href="Parkes_Observatory" title="Parkes Observatory">Parkes Observatory</a> (Australia)</dd>

<dd><a href="Warkworth_Radio_Astronomical_Observatory" title="Warkworth Radio Astronomical Observatory">Warkworth Radio Astronomical Observatory</a> (NZ)</dd></dl>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Interferometers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Allen_Telescope_Array" title="Allen Telescope Array">Allen Telescope Array</a> (ATA, California, US)</li>

<li><a href="Atacama_Large_Millimeter_Array" title="Atacama Large Millimeter Array">Atacama Large Millimeter Array</a> (ALMA, Chile)</li>

<li><a href="Australia_Telescope_Compact_Array" title="Australia Telescope Compact Array">Australia Telescope Compact Array</a> (ATCA, Australia)</li>

<li><a href="Australian_Square_Kilometre_Array_Pathfinder" title="Australian Square Kilometre Array Pathfinder">Australian Square Kilometre Array Pathfinder</a> (ASKAP, Australia)</li>

<li><a href="Canadian_Hydrogen_Intensity_Mapping_Experiment" title="Canadian Hydrogen Intensity Mapping Experiment">Canadian Hydrogen Intensity Mapping Experiment</a> (CHIME, Canada)</li>

<li><a href="Combined_Array_for_Research_in_Millimeter-wave_Astronomy" title="Combined Array for Research in Millimeter-wave Astronomy">Combined Array for Research in Millimeter-wave Astronomy</a> (CARMA, California, US)</li>

<li><a href="European_VLBI_Network" title="European VLBI Network">European VLBI Network</a> (Europe)</li>

<li><a href="Event_Horizon_Telescope" title="Event Horizon Telescope">Event Horizon Telescope</a> (EHT)</li>

<li><a href="Giant_Metrewave_Radio_Telescope" title="Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope">Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope</a> (GMRT, India)</li>

<li><a href="Green_Bank_Interferometer" title="Green Bank Interferometer">Green Bank Interferometer</a> (GBI, West Virginia, US)</li>

<li><a href="Korean_VLBI_Network" title="Korean VLBI Network">Korean VLBI Network</a> (KVN, South Korea)</li>

<li><a href="Large_Latin_American_Millimeter_Array" title="Large Latin American Millimeter Array">Large Latin American Millimeter Array</a> (LLAMA, Argentina/Brazil)</li>

<li><a href="Long_Wavelength_Array" title="Long Wavelength Array">Long Wavelength Array</a> (LWA, New Mexico, US)</li>

<li><a href="Low-Frequency_Array_(LOFAR)" class="mw-redirect" title="Low-Frequency Array (LOFAR)">Low-Frequency Array</a> (LOFAR, Netherlands)</li>

<li><a href="MeerKAT" title="MeerKAT">MeerKAT</a> (South Africa)</li>

<li><a href="Molonglo_Observatory_Synthesis_Telescope" title="Molonglo Observatory Synthesis Telescope">Molonglo Observatory Synthesis Telescope</a> (MOST, Australia)</li>

<li><a href="MERLIN" title="MERLIN">Multi-Element Radio Linked Interferometer Network</a> (MERLIN, UK)</li>

<li><a href="Murchison_Widefield_Array" title="Murchison Widefield Array">Murchison Widefield Array</a> (MWA, Australia)</li>

<li><a href="Northern_Cross_Radio_Telescope" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Cross Radio Telescope">Northern Cross Radio Telescope</a> (Italy)</li>

<li><a href="Northern_Extended_Millimeter_Array" title="Northern Extended Millimeter Array">Northern Extended Millimeter Array</a> (France)</li>

<li><a href="One-Mile_Telescope" title="One-Mile Telescope">One-Mile Telescope</a> (UK)</li>

<li><a href="Primeval_Structure_Telescope" title="Primeval Structure Telescope">Primeval Structure Telescope</a> (PaST, China)</li>

<li> (SKA, Australia, South Africa)</li>

<li><a href="Submillimeter_Array" title="Submillimeter Array">Submillimeter Array</a> (SMA, US)</li>

<li><a href="Very_Large_Array" title="Very Large Array">Very Large Array</a> (VLA, New Mexico, US)</li>

<li><a href="Very_Long_Baseline_Array" title="Very Long Baseline Array">Very Long Baseline Array</a> (VLBA, US)</li>

<li><a href="Westerbork_Synthesis_Radio_Telescope" title="Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope">Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope</a> (WSRT, Netherlands)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Space-based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="HALCA" title="HALCA">HALCA</a> (Japan)</li>

<li><a href="Spektr-R" title="Spektr-R">Spektr-R</a> (Russia)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.4em;">Observatories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Algonquin_Radio_Observatory" title="Algonquin Radio Observatory">Algonquin Radio Observatory</a> (Canada)</li>

<li><a href="Arecibo_Observatory" title="Arecibo Observatory">Arecibo Observatory</a> (Puerto Rico, US)</li>

<li><a href="Green_Bank_Observatory" title="Green Bank Observatory">Green Bank Observatory</a> (US)</li>

<li><a href="Haystack_Observatory" title="Haystack Observatory">Haystack Observatory</a> (US)</li>

<li><a href="Jodrell_Bank_Observatory" title="Jodrell Bank Observatory">Jodrell Bank Observatory</a> (UK)</li>

<li><a href="Mullard_Radio_Astronomy_Observatory" title="Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory">Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory</a> (UK)</li>

<li><a href="National_Radio_Astronomy_Observatory" title="National Radio Astronomy Observatory">National Radio Astronomy Observatory</a> (US)</li>

<li><a href="Nan%C3%A7ay_Radio_Observatory" title="Nançay Radio Observatory">Nançay Radio Observatory</a> (France)</li>

<li><a href="Onsala_Space_Observatory" title="Onsala Space Observatory">Onsala Space Observatory</a> (Sweden)</li>

<li><a href="Pushchino_Radio_Astronomy_Observatory" title="Pushchino Radio Astronomy Observatory">Pushchino Radio Astronomy Observatory</a> (PRAO ASC LPI, Russia)</li>

<li><a href="Special_Astrophysical_Observatory_of_the_Russian_Academy_of_Science" title="Special Astrophysical Observatory of the Russian Academy of Science">Special Astrophysical Observatory of the Russian Academy of Science</a> (SAORAS, Russia)</li>

<li><a href="Vermilion_River_Observatory" title="Vermilion River Observatory">Vermilion River Observatory</a> (US)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.4em;">Multi-use</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Dominion_Radio_Astrophysical_Observatory" title="Dominion Radio Astrophysical Observatory">DRAO</a> (Canada)</li>

<li><a href="New_Norcia_Station" title="New Norcia Station">ESA New Norcia</a> (Australia)</li>

<li><a href="Prince_Albert_Radar_Laboratory" title="Prince Albert Radar Laboratory">PARL</a> (Canada)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.4em;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Elizabeth_Alexander_(scientist)" title="Elizabeth Alexander (scientist)">Elizabeth Alexander</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Gatenby_Bolton" title="John Gatenby Bolton">John G. Bolton</a></li>

<li><a href="Edward_George_Bowen" title="Edward George Bowen">Edward George Bowen</a></li>

<li><a href="Ronald_N._Bracewell" title="Ronald N. Bracewell">Ronald Bracewell</a></li>

<li><a href="Jocelyn_Bell_Burnell" title="Jocelyn Bell Burnell">Jocelyn Bell Burnell</a></li>

<li><a href="Arthur_Covington" title="Arthur Covington">Arthur Covington</a></li>

<li><a href="Nan_Dieter-Conklin" title="Nan Dieter-Conklin">Nan Dieter-Conklin</a></li>

<li><a href="Frank_Drake" title="Frank Drake">Frank Drake</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyril_Hazard" title="Cyril Hazard">Cyril Hazard</a></li>

<li><a href="Antony_Hewish" title="Antony Hewish">Antony Hewish</a></li>

<li><a href="Sebastian_von_Hoerner" title="Sebastian von Hoerner">Sebastian von Hoerner</a></li>

<li><a href="Karl_Guthe_Jansky" title="Karl Guthe Jansky">Karl Guthe Jansky</a></li>

<li><a href="Kenneth_Kellermann" title="Kenneth Kellermann">Kenneth Kellermann</a></li>

<li><a href="Frank_John_Kerr" title="Frank John Kerr">Frank J. Kerr</a></li>

<li><a href="John_D._Kraus" title="John D. Kraus">John D. Kraus</a></li>

<li><a href="Bernard_Lovell" title="Bernard Lovell">Bernard Lovell</a></li>

<li><a href="Christiaan_Alexander_Muller" title="Christiaan Alexander Muller">Christiaan Alexander Muller</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_L._Pawsey" title="Joseph L. Pawsey">Joseph Lade Pawsey</a></li>

<li><a href="Ruby_Payne-Scott" title="Ruby Payne-Scott">Ruby Payne-Scott</a></li>

<li><a href="Arno_Allan_Penzias" title="Arno Allan Penzias">Arno Penzias</a></li>

<li><a href="Grote_Reber" title="Grote Reber">Grote Reber</a></li>

<li><a href="Martin_Ryle" title="Martin Ryle">Martin Ryle</a></li>

<li><a href="Govind_Swarup" title="Govind Swarup">Govind Swarup</a></li>

<li><a href="Gart_Westerhout" title="Gart Westerhout">Gart Westerhout</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Robert Woodrow Wilson">Robert Wilson</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.4em;">Astronomy by EM methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Submillimetre_astronomy" title="Submillimetre astronomy">Submillimetre astronomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Infrared_astronomy" title="Infrared astronomy">Infrared astronomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Visible-light_astronomy" title="Visible-light astronomy">Optical astronomy</a></li>

<li><a href="High-energy_astronomy" title="High-energy astronomy">High-energy astronomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Gravitational-wave_astronomy" title="Gravitational-wave astronomy">Gravitational-wave astronomy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.4em;">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aperture_synthesis" title="Aperture synthesis">Aperture synthesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Cosmic microwave background">Cosmic microwave background radiation</a></li>

<li><a href="Interferometry" title="Interferometry">Interferometry</a></li>

<li><a href="Odd_radio_circle" title="Odd radio circle">Odd radio circle</a></li>

<li><a href="Pulsar_timing_array" title="Pulsar timing array">Pulsar timing array</a></li>

<li><a href="Radio_propagation" title="Radio propagation">Radio propagation</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Wow!_signal" title="Wow! signal">Wow! signal</a></li>

<li><a href="HD_164595" title="HD 164595">HD 164595 signal</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Solar_radio_emission" title="Solar radio emission">Solar radio emission</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li>

<li> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Radio_astronomy" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Radio astronomy">Commons</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="National_Key_Points_in_South_Africa276" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="National_Key_Points_in_South_Africa276" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="List_of_National_Key_Points" title="List of National Key Points">National Key Points in South Africa</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Water supply sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Water_Board_(South_Africa)" class="mw-redirect" title="Water Board (South Africa)">Zwartkopjies</a></li>

<li><a href="Water_Board_(South_Africa)" class="mw-redirect" title="Water Board (South Africa)">Zuikerbosch</a></li>

<li><a href="Water_Board_(South_Africa)" class="mw-redirect" title="Water Board (South Africa)">Vereeniging</a></li>

<li><a href="Water_Board_(South_Africa)" class="mw-redirect" title="Water Board (South Africa)">Mapleton</a></li>

<li><a href="Vaal_Barrage" title="Vaal Barrage">Barrage</a></li>

<li><a href="Water_Board_(South_Africa)" class="mw-redirect" title="Water Board (South Africa)">Palmiet</a></li>

<li><a href="Water_Board_(South_Africa)" class="mw-redirect" title="Water Board (South Africa)">Eikenhof</a></li>

<li><a href="Lephalale" title="Lephalale">Mokolo Dam Pump Station</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Electricity generation and transmission sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Eskom" title="Eskom">Grassridge Transmission Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Eskom" title="Eskom">Perseus Transmission Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Lethabo_Power_Station" title="Lethabo Power Station">Lethabo Power Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Eskom" title="Eskom">Hydra Transmission Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Eskom" title="Eskom">Apollo Transmission Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Eskom" title="Eskom">Minerva Transmission Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Grootvlei_Power_Station" title="Grootvlei Power Station">Grootvlei Power Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Eskom" title="Eskom">Impala Transmission Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Eskom" title="Eskom">Klaarwater Distribution Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Eskom" title="Eskom">Pegasus Transmission Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Drakensberg_Pumped_Storage_Scheme" title="Drakensberg Pumped Storage Scheme">Drakensberg Power Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Eskom" title="Eskom">Durban South Distribution Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Eskom" title="Eskom">Durban North Distribution Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Eskom" title="Eskom">Athene Transmission Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Eskom" title="Eskom">Lotus Park Distribution station</a></li>

<li><a href="Camden_Power_Station" title="Camden Power Station">Camden Power Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Hendrina_Power_Station" title="Hendrina Power Station">Hendrina Power Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Kriel_Power_Station" title="Kriel Power Station">Kriel Power Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Arnot_Power_Station" title="Arnot Power Station">Arnot Power Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Eskom" title="Eskom">Sol Transmission Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Matla_Power_Station" title="Matla Power Station">Matla Power Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Duvha_Power_Station" title="Duvha Power Station">Duvha Power Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Tutuka_Power_Station" title="Tutuka Power Station">Tutuka Power Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Kendal_Power_Station" title="Kendal Power Station">Kendal Power Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Komati_Power_Station" title="Komati Power Station">Komati Power Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Majuba_Power_Station" title="Majuba Power Station">Majuba Power Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Matimba_Power_Station" title="Matimba Power Station">Matimba Power Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Eskom" title="Eskom">Muldersvlei Transmission Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Eskom" title="Eskom">Acasia Transmission Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Eskom" title="Eskom">Droeriver Transmission Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Koeberg_Nuclear_Power_Station" title="Koeberg Nuclear Power Station">Koeberg Nuclear Power Station</a></li>

<li>Gourikwa Power Station</li>

<li><a href="Ankerlig_Power_Station" title="Ankerlig Power Station">Ankerlig Power Station </a></li>

<li>Centlec</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Crude oil, fuel depot and processing sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>OilTanking Grindrod Calulo</li>

<li><a href="Sasol" title="Sasol">Natref Refinery</a></li>

<li><a href="Transnet_Pipelines" title="Transnet Pipelines">Bethlehem Pump Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Transnet_Pipelines" title="Transnet Pipelines">Coalbrook Pump Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Transnet_Pipelines" title="Transnet Pipelines">Sasol Pump Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Transnet_Pipelines" title="Transnet Pipelines">Kroonstad Pump Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Transnet_Pipelines" title="Transnet Pipelines">Magdala TPL Depot</a></li>

<li><a href="Transnet_Pipelines" title="Transnet Pipelines">Wilge TPL Depot</a></li>

<li><a href="Transnet_Pipelines" title="Transnet Pipelines">Shell Depot Alrode</a></li>

<li><a href="Transnet_Pipelines" title="Transnet Pipelines">Chevron Alrode</a></li>

<li><a href="Transnet_Pipelines" title="Transnet Pipelines">Sasol Depot Alrode</a></li>

<li><a href="Transnet_Pipelines" title="Transnet Pipelines">Total Depot Alrode</a></li>

<li><a href="Transnet_Pipelines" title="Transnet Pipelines">Alrode</a></li>

<li><a href="Caltex" title="Caltex">Chevron Texaco</a></li>

<li><a href="Transnet_Pipelines" title="Transnet Pipelines">Airport e-Natis Facility</a></li>

<li><a href="Transnet_Pipelines" title="Transnet Pipelines">Tarlton Distribution Depot</a></li>

<li><a href="Transnet_Pipelines" title="Transnet Pipelines">Klerksdorp Depot</a></li>

<li><a href="Transnet_Pipelines" title="Transnet Pipelines">Langlaagte Depot</a></li>

<li><a href="Transnet_Pipelines" title="Transnet Pipelines">Meyerton Depot</a></li>

<li><a href="Transnet_Pipelines" title="Transnet Pipelines">Rustenburg Depot</a></li>

<li><a href="Sasol" title="Sasol">Sasol Secunda</a></li>

<li><a href="Transnet_Pipelines" title="Transnet Pipelines">Jericho Pump Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Transnet_Pipelines" title="Transnet Pipelines">Rieftontein Pump Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Transnet_Pipelines" title="Transnet Pipelines">Grootfontein Pump Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Transnet_Pipelines" title="Transnet Pipelines">Vygeboom Pump Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Transnet_Pipelines" title="Transnet Pipelines">Bosloop Water Pump Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Transnet_Pipelines" title="Transnet Pipelines">Nooitgedact Pump Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Transnet_Pipelines" title="Transnet Pipelines">Transnet Pipeline Witbank Depot</a></li>

<li><a href="Transnet_Pipelines" title="Transnet Pipelines">Khutala Pump Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Transnet_Pipelines" title="Transnet Pipelines">Zaaihoek Pump Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Caltex" title="Caltex">Chevron Refinery</a></li>

<li><a href="PetroSA" title="PetroSA">PetroSA Voorbaai</a></li>

<li><a href="PetroSA" title="PetroSA">PetroSA GTL Refinery</a></li>

<li><a href="Mossgas" class="mw-redirect" title="Mossgas">FA Production Platform</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Presidential residential sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Qunu" title="Qunu">Nelson Mandela Qunu Village residence</a></li>

<li><a href="Mahlamba_Ndlopfu" title="Mahlamba Ndlopfu">Mahlamba Ndlopfu Presidential Residence</a></li>

<li><a href="Sefako_Mapogo_Makgatho" class="mw-redirect" title="Sefako Mapogo Makgatho">Sefako Makgatho Presidential Residence</a></li>

<li><a href="Nkandla_(homestead)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nkandla (homestead)">President of South Africa Residence Nkandla</a></li>

<li>JL Dube House</li>

<li><a href="Groote_Schuur" title="Groote Schuur">Presidential Residence (Genadendal)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Eastern_Cape_Provincial_Legislature" title="Eastern Cape Provincial Legislature">Eastern Cape Provincial Legislature</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_State_Legislature" class="mw-redirect" title="Free State Legislature">Free State Legislature</a></li>

<li><a href="Northern_Cape_Provincial_Legislature" title="Northern Cape Provincial Legislature">Northern Cape Provincial Legislature</a></li>

<li><a href="Union_Buildings" title="Union Buildings">Pretoria Union Buildings</a></li>

<li><a href="North_West_Provincial_Legislature" title="North West Provincial Legislature">North West Provincial Legislature</a></li>

<li><a href="KwaZulu-Natal_Legislature" title="KwaZulu-Natal Legislature">KwaZulu-Natal Legislature</a></li>

<li>Government Building Nelspruit</li>

<li><a href="Limpopo_Legislature" class="mw-redirect" title="Limpopo Legislature">Limpopo Legislature</a></li>

<li><a href="Houses_of_Parliament%2C_Cape_Town" title="Houses of Parliament, Cape Town">Houses of Parliament, Cape Town</a></li>

<li><a href="Parliament_of_South_Africa" title="Parliament of South Africa">120 Plein Street, Cape Town</a></li>

<li><a href="Western_Cape_Provincial_Parliament" title="Western Cape Provincial Parliament">Western Cape Provincial Parliament</a></li>

<li><a href="South_African_Reserve_Bank" title="South African Reserve Bank">SARB Port Elizabeth</a></li>

<li><a href="South_African_Reserve_Bank" title="South African Reserve Bank">SARB East London</a></li>

<li><a href="South_African_Reserve_Bank" title="South African Reserve Bank">SARB Bloemfontein</a></li>

<li><a href="South_African_Reserve_Bank" title="South African Reserve Bank">SARB Port Elizabeth</a></li>

<li><a href="South_African_Reserve_Bank" title="South African Reserve Bank">SARB Pretoria</a></li>

<li><a href="South_African_Reserve_Bank" title="South African Reserve Bank">SARB Johannesburg</a></li>

<li><a href="South_African_Reserve_Bank" title="South African Reserve Bank">South African Bank Note Company</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Space, science and technology sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul>

<li>Onderstepoort Biological Products</li>

<li><a href="State_Security_Agency_(South_Africa)" title="State Security Agency (South Africa)">SSA Communication Centre</a></li>

<li><a href="Council_for_Scientific_and_Industrial_Research" title="Council for Scientific and Industrial Research">CSIR Wind Tunnel</a></li>

<li><a href="Denel_Land_Systems" title="Denel Land Systems">Denel Land Systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Denel_Dynamics" title="Denel Dynamics">Denel Dynamics</a></li>

<li><a href="Telkom_(South_Africa)" title="Telkom (South Africa)">Main Telephone Exchange (PPR)</a></li>

<li><a href="Mittal_Steel_South_Africa" title="Mittal Steel South Africa">ArcelorMittal</a></li>

<li><a href="African_Explosives" title="African Explosives">African Explosives</a></li>

<li><a href="Denel_Aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Denel Aviation">Denel Aviation</a></li>

<li><a href="BAE_Systems_Land_Systems_South_Africa" title="BAE Systems Land Systems South Africa">BAE Systems Land Systems South Africa</a></li>

<li>Hartebeeshoek Earth Station</li>

<li><a href="South_African_Nuclear_Energy_Corporation" title="South African Nuclear Energy Corporation">NECSA</a></li>

<li><a href="South_African_National_Space_Agency" title="South African National Space Agency">South African National Space Agency</a></li>

<li><a href="Denel" title="Denel">Rheinmetall Denel Munition South Africa</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Airports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="O._R._Tambo_International_Airport" title="O. R. Tambo International Airport">O. R. Tambo International Airport</a></li>

<li><a href="King_Shaka_International_Airport" title="King Shaka International Airport">King Shaka International Airport</a></li>

<li><a href="Cape_Town_International_Airport" title="Cape Town International Airport">Cape Town International Airport</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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